This Chapter introduces the basic concepts and principles that are of concern to the Motif programmer. We define basic system concepts, describe the three basic levels of the X programming model and describe basic Motif components.
X requires a system that consists of workstations capable of bit-mapped graphics. These can be colour or monochrome.
A display is defined as a workstation consisting of a keyboard, a pointing device (usually a mouse although it could be a track ball or graphics tablet, for instance) and one or more screens.
X is network oriented and applications need not be running on the same system as the one supporting the display. This can sometimes be quite complicated for a system such as X to manage and so the concept of clients and servers was introduced.
You need not worry too much about the practicality of this, as normally X makes this transparent to the user -- especially if we run programs on a single workstation. However, in order to fully understand the workings of X, some notion of these concepts is required.
The program that controls each display is known as the server . This terminology may seem a little odd as we may be used to the server as something across the network such as a file server. Here, the server is a local program that controls our display . Also our display may be available to other systems across the network. In this case our system does act as a true display server.
The server acts as a go-between between user programs, called clients or applications and the resources of the local system. These run on either local or remote systems.
Tasks the server performs include:
The client and server are connected by a communication path called ( surprise, surprise) the connector . This is performed by a low-level C language interface known as Xlib . Xlib is the lowest level of the X system software hierarchy or architecture (Fig 4.1). Many applications can be written using Xlib alone. However, in general, it will be difficult and time consuming to write complex GUI programs only in Xlib. Many higher level subroutine libraries, called toolkits , have been developed to remedy this problem.
Note: X is not restricted to a single language, operating system or user interface. It is relatively straightforward to link calls to X from most programming languages. An X application must only be able to generate and receive messages in a special form, called X protocol messages . However, the protocol messages are easily accessible as C libraries in Xlib (and others).
There are usually two levels of toolkits above Xlib
An application program in X will usually consist of two parts. The graphical user interface written in one or more of Xlib, Xt or Motif and the algorithmic or functional part of the application where the input from the interface and other processing tasks are defined. Fig. 4.1 illustrates the relationships between the application program and the various parts of the X System.
Fig. 4.1 The X Programming Model The main concern of this text is to introduce concepts in building the graphical user interface in X and Motif in particular. We now briefly describe the main tasks of the three levels of the X programming model before embarking on writing Motif programs.
The main task of Xlib is to translate C data structures and procedures into the special form of X protocol messages which are then sent off. Obviously the converse of receiving messages and converting them to C structures is performed as well. Xlib handles the interface between client (application) and the network.
They allow applications to manipulate these features using object-oriented techniques.
X Toolkit Intrinsics or Xt Intrinsics are a toolkit that allow programmers to create and use new widgets.
If we use widgets properly, it will simplify the X programming process and also help preserve the look and feel of the application which should make it easier to use.
We will have to call some Xt functions when writing Motif programs since Motif is built upon Xt and thus needs to use Xt. However, we do notneed to fully understand the workings of Xt as Motif takes care of most things for us.
X allows extensions to the Xt Intrinsics toolkit. Many software houses have developed custom features that make the GUI's appearance attractive, easy to use and easy to develop. Motif is one such toolkit.
The third party toolkits usually supply a special client called the window manager
The basic unit of currency of Motif is the widget . The widget is the basic building block for the GUI. It is common and beneficial for most GUIs assembled in Motif to look and behave in a similar fashion. Motif enforces many of these features by providing default actions for each widget. Motif also prescribes certain other actions that should, whenever possible, be adhered to. Information regarding Motif GUI design is provided in the Motif Style Guide [Ope93]. We now briefly address general issues relating to Motif widgets and style.
A widget, in Motif, may be regarded as a general abstraction for user-interface components. Motif provides widgets for almost every common GUI component, including buttons, menus and scroll bars. Motif also provides widgets whose only function is to control the layout of other widgets -- thus enabling fairly advanced GUIs to be easily designed and assembled.
A widget is designed to operate independently of the application except through well defined interactions, called callback functions . This takes a lot of mundane GUI control and maintenance away from the application programmer. Widgets know how to redraw and highlight themselves, how to respond to certain events such as a mouse click etc. Some widgets go further than this, for example the Text widget is a fully functional text editor that has built in cut and paste as well as other common text editing facilities.
The general behaviour of each widget is defined as part of the Motif (Xm) library. In fact Xt defines certain base classes of widgets which form a common foundation for nearly all Xt based widget sets. Motif provides a widget set, the Xm library, which defines a complete set of widget classes for most GUI requirements on top of Xt (Fig 4.1).
The Motif Reference Manual [Hel94b] provides definitions on all aspects of widget behaviour and interaction. Basically, each widget is defined as a C data structure whose elements define a widget's data attributes, or resources and pointers to functions, such as callbacks.
Each widget is defined to be of a certain class . All widgets of that class inherit the same set of resources and callback functions. Motif also defines a whole hierarchy of widget classes. There are two broad Motif widget classes that concern us. The Primitive widget class contains actual GUI components, such as buttons and text widgets. The Manager widget class defines widgets that hold other widgets.
Chapter 5 introduces basic Motif widget programming concepts and introduces how resources and callback functions are set up. Chapter 6 then goes on to fully define each widget class and the Motif widget class hierarchy. Following Chapters then address each widget class in detail.
The Motif Style Guide should be read by every Motif Application developer. The Style Guide is not intended to be a Motif programming manual. This book is not intended to be a a complete guide to Motif style. The books should be regarded as essential companions along with a good Motif reference source.
The Motif Style Guide provides a set of guidelines that specify a framework for the behaviour of Motif application developers, GUI developers, widget developers and window managers. Many standard GUI design and behaviour issues are integrated into a Motif widget's default settings. Therefore these defaults should only be modified with great care and consideration. Other aspects of style are left to the developer. The Motif Style Guide only suggests certain standard operations, but where appropriate these should be adopted.
The Motif Style Guide prescribes many common forms of interaction and interface design. For example, it defines how menus should be constructed, used and organised. Chapter 20 summarises all the common style concerns for the Motif programmer. Where appropriate specific reference is made in individual Sections to Motif style for a particular widget.
